Are We More Likely To Develop Foodborne Illness From Animal Foods Than Plant Foods?

During the by decade, fruits and vegetables have go leading vehicles of nutrient-borne illnesses. Furthermore, many plant-based foods and ingredients, not previously considered a run a risk, have been associated with food-borne disease outbreaks. Most of the pathogens that have been identified as causative agents in these illnesses or outbreaks are enteric zoonotic pathogens that are typically associated with fauna hosts. Transmission of zoonotic pathogens from animals to establish systems occurs by a diverseness of routes, but the initial contributing factor is the discharge of animate being manure into the surroundings. Using a "I Health" arroyo that focuses on animal, human, and environmental health concurrently can provide practical and constructive interventions for reducing the incidence of such outbreaks. This paper addresses this concept by providing recent food-borne disease outbreak data related to fruits and vegetables, delineating findings regarding the prevalence of pathogens in fauna manures and describing the vehicles that transmit pathogens from manure to produce fields, and discussing the merits of reducing pathogen transmission through interventions that would not adversely affect the health of the surround or animals.

Outbreaks and Illnesses Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

Food-borne illnesses have been a persistent challenge to public health and are now beingness detected with greater frequency largely because of enhanced surveillance systems that have been implemented in many countries. These enhanced surveillance systems accept during the by decade revealed that the proportion of total outbreaks attributed to produce is significant (Lynch et al., 2009) but varies with the country. For example, but 4 percent of all food-borne outbreaks reported in Australia from 2001 to 2005 were attributed to fresh produce (Kirk et al., 2008); similarly, in Canada, between 1976 and 2005, 3.7 percent of 5,745 outbreaks with a known vehicle of transmission were attributed to produce (Ravel et al., 2009). However, in dissimilarity, data from the Centers for Illness Control and Prevention (CDC) identified produce as either the first or 2nd leading vehicle in nutrient-borne disease outbreaks attributed to a single commodity inside the United States for the period 2006-2008 (Table A3-i). Furthermore, outbreak surveillance data of produce items compiled past the CDC during the catamenia 2000-2009 revealed that leafy greens were the almost common item associated with food-borne disease, followed by tomatoes and cantaloupes (Table A3-two). Moreover, attribution gamble rankings of fresh produce–associated outbreaks in the United States identified enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli in leafy greens as the leading pathogen-produce vehicle combination, followed by Salmonella spp. in tomatoes, and Salmonella spp. in leafy greens (Anderson et al., 2011). Further differentiation of vehicles of produce-associated outbreaks that occurred in the U.s.a. during the period of 1998-2008 revealed that fresh-cut produce deemed for 56 percentage, 36 percentage, and 17 percent of the outbreaks attributed to leafy greens, tomatoes, and melons, respectively (Sneed, 2010).

Table A3-i

Nutrient-Borne Affliction Outbreaks Attributed to a Unmarried Commodity by Leading Food Vehicles, 2006-2008.

Table A3-2

Number of Outbreaks (illnesses) Reported Between 2000 and 2009 in the United States That Were Associated with Selected Fresh Produce Items as a Function of their Etiology,.

An evaluation of selected produce-associated outbreaks that occurred during the past 5 years revealed several common features (Table A3-iii). These outbreaks often were multistate or multinational in nature and reflect the large areas to which the foods are distributed. With imports accounting for near 39 percent of fresh fruits and xiv percent of fresh vegetables in 2005 (Johnson, 2012), improved sampling and pathogen testing of produce at the borders of the Us offers 1 barrier for reducing the likelihood of contaminated produce from entering the retail sector. However, better implementation both domestically and abroad of best nutrient safety practices for producing and processing fruits and vegetables would accept even more impact on reducing pathogen contamination and the likelihood of produce-borne illnesses. This approach would address a significant contributing factor associated with several contempo produce outbreaks, which is that contamination occurs on the farm where production and processing tin occur. For instance, in a multistate outbreak of listeriosis in 2011 that resulted in 34 deaths and was the most mortiferous food-borne outbreak in the Usa since 1924, iv outbreak-associated strains of Listeria monocytogenes were traced dorsum to whole cantaloupes and packing equipment on Jensen Farms in Colorado (CDC, 2011c). In another 2011 outbreak, fenugreek seeds that were likely contaminated with fecal thing led to the largest outbreak in the number of cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome (22.3 pct of 4,075 full cases) ever reported in the world (WHO, 2011).

Table A3-three

Selected Food-Borne Illness Outbreaks Attributed to Produce During the Period of 2006-2011.

Surveillance of Pathogens in Retail Produce

A number of studies have been conducted to determine the prevalence of enteric pathogens on fruits and vegetables, and the results varied with respect to the country of origin and the target pathogen. For Salmonella, there was for most adult countries a very low prevalence in cabbage, lettuce, and mixed salads, whereas higher prevalences were observed for developing countries where agricultural production and aseptic practices were of a lower level of sanitation (Tabular array A3-4). The presence of helminth and protozoan parasites in leafy greens (Table A3-5), withal, likely reflects the ability of these pathogens to resist standard chlorine-based wastewater treatments (Erickson and Ortega, 2006; Graczyk et al., 2007). The relatively depression occurrence of pathogen contagion on produce makes it inherently difficult to rank the degree of risk associated with the various sources of contagion by which enteric pathogens are transmitted from animals to plant production environments.

Tabular array A3-4

Prevalence of Salmonella in Lettuce, Cabbage, and Mixed Salads Throughout the Earth (2001-2011).

Table A3-5

Prevalence of Helminth and Protozoan Parasites in Leafy Greens from 2005-2010.

Pathogens in Manures from Domesticated Creature

A large number of zoonotic pathogens reside and abound in the gastrointestinal tract of domesticated animals (poultry, cattle, swine, sheep, and goats) and are shed in their feces asymptomatically, often in very large numbers. Those enteric pathogens associated with the largest number of food-borne affliction outbreaks and illnesses include Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella spp., Shiga toxin–producing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (STEC), and Cryptosporidium parvum. Many studies have been conducted to decide the prevalence of these pathogens in the feces of domesticated animals. A selection of results of recent studies are shown in Tables A3-vi to A3-nine to illustrate the range of pathogen prevalences and cell numbers that may occur within animal wastes and between and inside different groups of animals. For Cryptosporidium, not all species are pathogenic for humans. For example, currently there are at least 16 recognized species of Cryptosporidium, of which two almost bear upon humans, C. hominis and C. parvum (Jagai et al., 2010). Therefore, when results practise non differentiate species of Cryptosporidium, the potential chance of those manures to human wellness may exist overestimated.

Table A3-6

Prevalence and Cell Numbers of Salmonella spp. in Manures from Domesticated Animals.

TABLE A3-vii

Prevalence and Prison cell Numbers of Campylobacter spp. in Manures from Domesticated Animals.

TABLE A3-8

Prevalence and Cell Numbers of Shiga Toxin–Producing E. coli in Manures from Domesticated Animals.

Table A3-nine

Prevalence and Cell Numbers of Cryptosporidium spp. in Manures from Domesticated Animals.

Direction of Wastes from Domesticated Animals

Globally, nutrient animal product has increased more fivefold in the past 50 years due in big office to the adoption of the industrialized concentrated animal production model. With multinational companies expanding their operations overseas, estimates indicate that concentrated beast feeding operations (CAFOs) provide 74 pct of poultry, l percent of pork, and 43 percent of beef produced worldwide (Halweil and Nierenberg, 2004). Accompanying this expansion in product has been the challenge of managing the massive quantities of animal wastes that are generated in one location. For example, in Red china, brute waste was estimated to be iii.2 billion tons, which was 3 times the amount of industrial solid waste produced in that aforementioned year (Wang et al., 2005). Inside the United States, it has besides been reported that bars food animals produce approximately 335 million dry tons of waste matter per year, which is more than forty times the amount of human biosolids waste generated from wastewater treatment plants (Graham and Nachman, 2010). The vast bulk of this animal waste matter is practical to land without whatever required treatment for reduction of pathogens as is required for man biosolids (EPA, 2004).

At that place are two primary forms of animal wastes generated at CAFOs. In the case of broiler units, solid waste material is generated either every bit single-use, partial reuse, or multiuse litter (Bolan et al., 2010). In bars swine and cattle operations, h2o is used to flush waste matter from the floors where the animals are housed, and the liquid slurry is channeled into large ponds for storage (Graham and Nachman, 2010). The application of animal wastes to country is largely based on agronomic requirements, geography, and commodity choices. For example, corn receives more than half of the land-practical manure, of which most of the manure is from dairy and hog stock because of the use of corn as a major feed ingather for dairy and hog operations and the high growth nutrient requirement of corn for nitrogen-rich manure. Hay and grasses are the second largest of the crops fertilized by manure, which is mostly from hog, broiler, and dairy producers (MacDonald et al., 2009). Poultry litter, on the other hand, is frequently used equally a fertilizer for cotton wool, peanuts, and fresh produce (Boyhan and Hill, 2008).

Straight Transmission of Enteric Pathogens from Beast Wastes to Produce Fields

Animal manures practical to fields to be used for fruit and vegetable production take the potential to be a directly source of enteric pathogens if there has not been sufficient belongings time between planting and harvest. The U.S. Department of Agronomics (USDA) National Organic Program permits the incorporation of raw manure into soil 120 days before harvest if the food ingather has directly contact with the soil; however, simply xc days prior to harvest is required if crops accept no contact with the soil (7 Lawmaking of Federal Regulations [CFR] 205.203). In contrast, more stringent requirements have been set by the Leafy Greens Marketing Agreement in which 1 yr between application of raw manure and harvest of the ingather is advocated (LGMA, 2012). As part of the Nutrient Rubber Modernization Act, it is anticipated that the Food and Drug Administration will include in its produce dominion a required fourth dimension interval between manure application to fields and either the planting or harvest of crops that would be consumed raw.

Transmission via Runoff of Enteric Pathogens from Animal Waste matter–Practical Lands to Produce Fields

I of the routes by which enteric pathogens may be indirectly transferred to produce fields from domesticated animal waste deposited or stored on country adjacent to produce fields is via storm runoff. Many studies have revealed that enteric pathogens tin move both horizontally and vertically to contaminate land, surface waters, and ground waters adjacent to produce fields (Cooley et al., 2007; Forslund et al., 2011). In these situations, the risk of pathogen contamination of produce will be dependent on a number of factors, including the attachment strength of the pathogen to soil particles, the interval betwixt the manure application and the atmospheric precipitation events, the kinetic energy of the rainfall, the topographical slope that affects the direction and velocity of water catamenia, and the density of vegetation between the waste source and the destination site (Ferguson et al., 2007; Hodgon et al., 2009; Jamieson et al., 2002; Lewis et al., 2010; Mishra et al., 2008; Saini et al., 2003; Tyrrel and Quinton, 2003). In improver, the physical state of the waste volition also affect the direction of movement of the pathogens with greater percolation occurring past a liquid slurry source and greater overland send for a solid manure source (Forslund et al., 2011; Semenov et al., 2009).

Transmission of Enteric Pathogens from Waste product-Contaminated Water Sources to Produce Fields

Storm runoff conveying pathogens from animal wastes does not necessarily have to pass through agricultural produce fields to be a source of contamination. Drove in surface waters and subsequent utilize of that water to irrigate produce crops is another ways to disseminate the pathogens. Surveys of environmental water sources for pathogen contagion accept revealed significant contamination with Salmonella spp., STEC, and protozoan parasites (Table A3-10); however, contamination appears to be sporadic and is often associated with recent rain events and seasonality (Gaertner et al., 2009; Haley et al., 2009). Enhanced survival of pathogens in the sediment (Chandran et al., 2011; Garzio-Hadzick et al., 2010) and resuspension of the organisms into the water cavalcade may also perpetuate the risk. Contagion of surface waters, moreover, has been associated with the concentration of food animals raised in the area (Cooley et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2003; Tserendorj et al., 2011; Wilkes et al., 2011). Salmonella and Cryptosporidium contamination of watersheds not impacted by man or domesticated beast production has been observed (Edge et al., 2012; Patchanee et al., 2010), which suggests that there is a level of natural occurrence of these pathogens from wildlife sources.

TABLE A3-10

Prevalence of Salmonella spp., STEC, and Protozoan Parasites in Ecology Waters.

Several epidemiological studies lend support to the role that contaminated irrigation water serves as a manual vehicle of enteric pathogens to fresh produce. In 2002 and 2005, ii outbreaks of South. Newport infection in the United states of america were associated with eating tomatoes and the outbreak strain was isolated from the pond h2o used to irrigate the love apple fields (Greene et al., 2008). Irrigation of fields with contaminated irrigation waters was as well indicated equally a possible source of contamination of imported cantaloupe associated with an outbreak of S. Poona infection in the U.s.a. in consecutive years during 2000-2002 (CDC, 2002). Given the often sporadic nature of contagion of irrigation water, these documented cases linking irrigation water to an outbreak may represent only a pocket-size fraction of the contamination events that actually occur. Worldwide, information technology is estimated that 17 percent of the globe's cropland (one.four billion hectares) is irrigated and, of that, 20 million hectares are irrigated with untreated wastewater (Jimenez et al., 2010). In the United States and the Britain, all-encompassing irrigation of fresh produce crops occurs and, of the acreage irrigated, 48 percent and 78 percent, respectively, are derived from non-groundwater sources (Knox et al., 2011; USDA NASS, 2009), which are subject to intermittent inputs of pathogens from brute husbandry operations.

Contribution of Bioaerosols to Dissemination of Enteric Pathogens from Animal Production Operations to Produce Fields

Aerosolization of microbial pathogens is an inevitable consequence associated with brute production operations as well as the handling and disposition of creature manure. However, estimating the impact of bioaerosol dispersal on pathogen dissemination has been hampered by the notable absence of standardized and validated methods for enumeration of diverse types of microorganisms in outdoor bioaerosols. Hence, there has been a broad range of prevalence and cell number values reported across very diverse types of animal operations and landscapes (Millner, 2009).

Studies addressing bioaerosol levels in outdoor air generally address fecal indicator organisms because they are more arable and easily identified in the aerosols, although it is acknowledged that they may behave differently than the pathogens. The general trend that has been observed is decreasing airborne microorganism concentrations as the distance from the source increases with relative humidity, temperature, and solar irradiance being major factors affecting viability (Dungan, 2010). Other pertinent observations fabricated in studies addressing the levels of the indicator organism, E. coli, in aerosols of poultry houses are that the levels of airborne bacteria are intricately linked to the levels of those bacteria in the litter (Chinivasagam et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2012) and the blazon of ventilation system affects the distance that E. coli is disseminated, with Eastward. coli traversing 11.i and 7.v m downwind from houses using tunnel and conventional fans, respectively (Smith et al., 2012).

Limited studies have been conducted addressing bioaerosol transport post-obit land awarding of animal manures in dissimilarity to those addressing the application of municipal wastes (Pillai and Ricke, 2002). Although at that place may be some like behavior between these two sources, in that location could be differences given that they vary in their organic affair content that can provide differences in the caste of protection against ultraviolet radiation and drying (Dungan, 2010). In ane of the few studies addressing land application of cattle and swine slurry and the method used to disperse the wastes, total bacterial counts in the air were greater at greater distances from spray guns that discharged the slurry upward into the air compared to tank spreading that sprayed the slurries closer to the footing (Boutin et al., 1988). In another study in which swine manure was applied through a center pivot irrigation system, coliform concentrations decreased to about background concentrations at 23 g downwind (Kim et al., 2008). Wind speed and topography, however, are likely to also factor into the distances traversed by pathogens and, hence, condom distances between produce fields and creature product activities volition likely be site specific.

Wild animals as a Vehicle to Transmit Pathogens from Domesticated Animal Waste product to Produce Fields

The recent focus on wildlife every bit a potential source of pathogen contagion of produce fields was driven past the isolation of E. coli O157:H7 from feral swine that occupied areas near spinach fields and cattle farms in California following the 2006 spinach outbreak (Jay et al., 2007). More recently, Campylobacter jejuni was isolated both from Sandhill crane feces and raw peas and several of the isolates had pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns duplicate from clinical samples obtained during a C. jejuni gastroenteritis outbreak that occurred in Alaska in 2008 (Gardner et al., 2011). Attention was again focused on wild animals as a potential source of contagion when E. coli O157:H7 isolated from deer feces was adamant to have an identical PFGE blueprint every bit the isolates responsible for 15 people who were ill from eating contaminated fresh strawberries in Oregon in 2011 (IEH Laboratories & Consulting Grouping, 2011). Given that the same strain was as well isolated from soil raises the question as to whether the deer were really the source of the outbreak or were infected when they ate the contaminated strawberries. Virtually evidence indicating that wildlife is a potential source of nutrient-borne contamination is from the isolation of clinically relevant pathogens from the creature's carrion. In 1 instance, Renter et al. (2006) isolated from deer fecal samples four Salmonella serovars (Litchfield, Dessau, Infantis, and Enteritidis) known to exist pathogenic to humans and animals. In some other case, subtyping of STEC isolates from wildlife meat in Federal republic of germany identified virulence genes associated with severe clinical effect (stx2, stxsecond, and eae) in 46 of the 140 STEC samples (Miko et al., 2009). More than definitive proof that specific types of wildlife could be transmission vectors of pathogens from domesticated animal facilities was obtained with a report of European starlings (Williams et al., 2011). In that study, distinct molecular types of E. coli O157:H7 were similar in starlings and cattle on different farms, and these birds were capable of shedding the pathogen in their feces for more 3 days (Kauffman and LeJeune, 2011). Hence, it is reasonable to assume that European starlings could serve equally a vector of pathogens from cattle and dairy farms to produce fields.

In response to the express studies linking wild animals to produce contamination, processors and buyers accept become overreactive in many cases in requiring the absence of many types of wild animals from farms. To illustrate this trend, the percentage of growers that reported being told past their processors or buyers that feral pigs, deer, birds, rodents, and amphibians were a meaning risk was nineteen, 28, 44, 47, and 28 pct, respectively (Lowell et al., 2010). Several studies, however, take revealed that some groups of animals have a very low prevalence of contamination with relevant human being enteric pathogens (Tabular array A3-11). It is likely that all creature groups accept the potential to be contaminated with a food-borne pathogen, just whether they are significant harbingers of human enteric pathogens is probable dependent on their admission to animal husbandry sites besides as on their social behavior (i.e., beingness of a social group and its size). This would also be the case with insects. For example, filth flies collected in leafy greenish fields were believed to have originated from nearby rangelands that contained fresh cattle manure (Talley et al., 2009).

TABLE A3-11

Prevalence of Enteric Food-Borne Pathogens in Wildlife and Insects.

Persistence of Pathogens on Produce in Fields Requires a Systems Approach to Foreclose and Monitor Pathogen Introduction

Many field studies have revealed the persistence of man enteric pathogens, albeit typically at low levels, in a number of dissimilar vegetables contaminated at various points during their tillage (Erickson et al., 2010; Gutiérrez-Rodriguez et al., 2011; Islam et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2005; Moyne et al., 2011). This is noteworthy because chemical disinfectants typically used during minimal processing of fresh produce are not fully effective in eliminating pathogen contamination (Doyle and Erickson, 2008). Hence, it is paramount to prevent the introduction of these pathogens into produce fields. The main approach currently used to reduce the risk of pathogen contamination in fields is the awarding of practiced agricultural practices (GAPs). To prevent the introduction of pathogens through nontraditional vehicles (storm runoff, intrusions past pathogen-carrying wildlife) will require the evolution of novel approaches in addition to GAPs. Given that the environment surrounding the produce field would probable be impacted by these pathogen command practices, it is important to implement a systems approach and consider all ramifications to the adoption of whatever intervention practices. Information technology is also of import to be cognizant that tempest runoff and fecal deposits from wild fauna may only contaminate the plants at detached locations within a field. The ability to detect this contamination by current sampling plans that rely on uniform contagion is therefore limited and efforts are needed to develop new monitoring systems that tin observe contamination when such pathogen introductions occur.

Concluding Comments

Vegetables, fruits, and a variety of plant foods and ingredients are now recognized as major vehicles of food-borne disease outbreaks, and a primary source of pathogen contagion of this commodity grouping is animal manure. At that place are several routes past which pathogens tin can be transmitted from fauna production sites to produce fields. The vehicles likely presenting the greatest risk are manure-contaminated soil amendments and irrigation h2o. Wildlife, insects, and vermin, however, may as well serve as intermediate vectors of pathogens from fauna wastes to plants in the field. The multifaceted routes by which pathogens may be transmitted to produce crops illuminates the value of a I Health approach to minimize pathogen contagion in the production environment while ensuring that adverse effects to the environment be minimized.

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4: Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA.

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114507/

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